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Key to good language learning

This information has been produced by the Centre for Language Study and is available in booklet form, along with all the other Modern Languages study guides, in the Language Resources Centre.

Introduction	Becoming an independent language learner
Section 1	Thinking about the way you learn
Section 2	Ways to improve your language learning Listening Reading Speaking Writing Learning vocabulary Learning grammar General approaches to learning
Section 3	Making the most of language learning resources
Section 4	A glossary of key words and terms in language learning

Words and phrases in bold have glossary definitions.

Introduction: Becoming an independent language learner

This guide has been written to help you learn a foreign language more effectively and successfully. It suggests a range of learning strategies that you can adopt - whether you are a newcomer to language learning or at a more advanced stage. It also offers guidance on making use of the materials and facilities in the main Language Resources Centre and other language resources rooms across the university.

The guide is still in development and we would be very pleased to receive useful ideas from you.

In recent years, the terms learner autonomy and learner independence have gained increasing importance in the educational context. They have taken on a number of associated meanings for language learning - these include:

assuming responsibility for your own learning;
acquiring key skills and learning strategies;
learning according to your own needs and interests;
using available resources and taking every opportunity to learn.

Research has shown that language learners whose approaches to learning reflect some of these characteristics are more likely to succeed in their long-term aims and objectives. This is why it is important to have access to a resources or open learning centre with a wide range of materials and to belong to an institution which encourages learners to make use of these resources and develop an autonomous approach to learning. This does not mean that the teacher and the classroom no longer have a crucial role to play in the learning process, since classroom instruction, regular attendance and participation together with contact and collaboration with colleagues all contribute equally to progress!

It has also been recognised that language learners display a variety of different learning styles. The way that individual learners respond in a shared language learning situation, and the kinds of activities they engage in when working with language learning materials on their own, have been shown to vary. The language learning context, therefore, also needs to accommodate differences in learning styles so that all language learners have the best chance of achieving individual success.

With the above in mind, this guide aims to encourage you to develop an autonomous approach. It offers a range of ideas for language learning activities which you might wish to try out and, if successful, build into your own repertoire of learning strategies.

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Section 1: Thinking about the way you learn

First Task

To assess yourself and your approach to language learning, consider these questions:

Which language learning strategies do you already use (look at the checklist below)?
Which of the learning strategies below could you add to your own repertoire of learning strategies?
Can you identify some of your own strengths and weaknesses in language learning?
Which activities below do you think you do well; which don’t you do enough of?
How could you organise the time you have for language learning in a more productive way?

Checklist of Learning Strategies

	Tick where appropriate
	I plan my language learning
	I monitor my progress in language learning regularly
	I work on language learning tasks with other people (e.g. friends, people on my course) as well as on my own
	I try to find opportunities to practise speaking (even to myself) to improve my fluency
	I review my independent study programme regularly and change it when I find deficiencies
	I try to motivate myself by setting weekly or monthly language learning goals, targets etc.
	I try to adopt an active approach towards my language learning; I don’t just study when I have to
	I reflect on what I need to learn to meet my objectives
	I review what I’ve learned at regular intervals
	I reflect on how I learn so I can improve my learning methods
	I have an organised approach to my language learning and try to think about language in terms of the different categories, systems and patterns within it (e.g. grammar, function, register, vocabulary, sound).
	I try to personalise my language learning
	I am willing to take risks and be adventurous with language to try out my skills
	I try to learn from the mistakes I make

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Section 2: Ways to improve your language learning

This section offers ideas for language learning activities. Try out these activities and if you find them effective, build them into your individual study programme.

The activities are organised under the main skill(s) they relate to. Language learning is often seen in terms of four basic language skills:- listening, speaking, reading and writing. There can, of course, be an overlap between skill areas - grammar and vocabulary are two extra areas which are frequently added to the four skills.

Another useful way of looking at language is in terms of function. This involves identifying the different purposes for which language is being used. For example, language items that reflect different functional areas such as apologising, introducing and greeting, or requesting can be usefully grouped together.

Finally, register can serve as a helpful way of looking at language. Register relates to the style of language found in a particular context. In many languages, this can vary according to situation (how formal/ informal it is) and the relationship between users.

It is also important to ask yourself what you can learn about the society and culture of the country where the language is spoken.

With regard to the particular text or language activity you are engaged with, you might ask yourself

What factual information is there here about the country?
How does the language reflect social relationships and conventions, for example in the way people of different ages or statuses address one another, how people interrupt, show agreement, use body language, and so on?
How does the language reflect beliefs, values and attitudes, for example in how people talk or write about politics, social class, national traditions, entertainment, religion, and so on?
What are the differences in the way language is used in different situations
and for different purposes?

How are these uses of language different from English, or your own native language?

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2.1 Listening

Use an audio (or video) recording to practise and develop your listening strategies. Listen to a piece, not just once, but several times, varying the way you do it. For example, start by trying to understand general meaning or the main idea. In this stage it helps to listen out for key words and to stop the tape at frequent intervals and predict what is going to come next. Later, practise listening intensively for specific information or practise note-taking. Transcripts are probably most usefully employed during later stages of listening. Try to build up an understanding of the piece through several listenings.
Focus on pronunciation and notice how preceding words may influence the pronunciation of the following ones. Practise listening to intonation patterns and identify variations in sentence or word stress. Do these contain clues about the speaker’s emotions?
Use video recordings to develop your skill at interpreting paralinguistic clues (e.g. gestures, head and eye movements) to enhance your understanding of the language context. What can you learn about appropriate body language (eye contact, physical distance, hand movements, facial expressions) in the target language community? Watch a section with the sound off, trying to predict content, perhaps producing your own commentary or dialogue, then re-watch and compare your version with the original.
Listen to a recording with someone else. After each listening exchange information on what you both understood. Set yourselves questions for subsequent listenings.
Use a short section of a tape recording for a self-dictation exercise. Check it against a transcript when you are satisfied you have listened to it enough times. Alternatively, use a short section of a video with subtitles to set yourself a dictation. Cover the subtitles while transcribing, then replay with subtitles exposed to check your transcription. Remember that the subtitles may not correspond exactly to what you hear.
Use a recording to practise other skills besides listening. For example, practise note-taking and then write a short summary, or listen to extract useful vocabulary.
Exploit satellite TV channels in different ways to improve your listening. For example, switch on teletext subtitles, if available, to aid your understanding, or spend time focusing on one aspect of communication eg. ways of interrupting, questioning and responding in the target language if you are watching a soap or chat show. Alternatively, focus on an aspect of pronunciation such as accent, trying to note differences between speakers’ accents.

For further help with listening see Television/Video Study Guides 1, available in the Language Resources Centre

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2.2 Reading

Develop your skill at predicting. What can you predict about text content from title, subheadings, first and last paragraphs, the first few lines, accompanying pictures/photographs?
Practise skim reading the text for gist and then ask yourself what the article is about. Based on this, what specific information would you expect to find in it. Scan the text to see if that information is there.
Improve your inferencing skills. Try to guess the meaning of unknown words from context - e.g. what part of speech is it? What does preceding and following information suggest the unknown word might mean?
Work on unravelling complex ideas by breaking sentences down into more manageable units and rephrasing the ideas for yourself in simple terms.
Work on developing better text awareness skills. Compare several texts in the language you are studying from the point of view of register - what stylistic features characterise texts that share the same register? Can you identify the writer’s attitude towards his/her subject? What linguistic clues lead you to your conclusions?
Try to speed up your reading so that you are not trying to understand every word but reading as fast a you can for gist or general meaning.

For further help with reading see Reading Skills Study Guide 1, available in the Language Resources Centre

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2.3 Speaking

Say new words and phrases aloud both to help commit them to memory and to practise pronunciation.
Group useful items of functional language together and try to learn useful situational expressions by heart. Then try to find opportunities to try to use them to reinforce your learning.
Use native speakers to check a correct form or pronunciation you are uncertain of.
Seek opportunities to practise speaking and develop your fluency as opposed to your accuracy. Try and find a native speaker and set up a tandem partnership. You can advertise for a partner on the noticeboard.
Record yourself on tape to develop your fluency (e.g. giving a spontaneous talk about yourself, what you have done this week or on a specialised topic you’ve been researching) then replay it and critically analyse the recording. Note mistakes in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and hesitations - afterwards find out how to say what you wanted to say better.
Practise mimicking intonation patterns and varying sentence stress in the target language to familiarise yourself with these aspects of speaking and to develop your confidence.
Use the phonetic script in a print or electronic dictionary to practise the exact pronunciation of new words and phrases in the language you are learning. Then, where available, compare your pronunciation with the recorded pronunciations in an electronic dictionary or pronunciation package.

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2.4 Writing

Try to think in the target language when you are writing. Try not to translate from your first language.
Try to learn from previous mistakes and tutors’ corrections and comments. Check your writing carefully for mistakes in grammar and vocabulary use in particular. Use a dictionary or spellchecker for uncertain spellings and any other reference materials which might be useful.
Practise writing as much as you can. Even informal writing activities such as keeping a language learning diary in the target language or corresponding on email with a native speaker will help to improve your writing skills. You could find an email partner through the International Email Tandem Network available over the web at: www.slf.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/email/idxeng00.html
Try to put yourself in your reader’s place to test the clarity and effectiveness of your writing. Re-read what you have written, if is an academic essay:

   Is it logically organised?
   Is there an introduction, main body and conclusion?
   Are the ideas clearly expressed?
   Are more examples or explanations needed?
Look at native speaker samples of writing in the target language. Try to analyse how they are written and note any useful linking expressions (e.g. however, because, but). Are there any obvious differences from a similar piece of writing in your first language? It might be useful to discuss these differences with the language assistants or other native speakers.
Produce an academic piece of writing in stages:
1. make notes
2. produce a plan, a rough draft then a redraft
3. proof-read your final piece of writing (perhaps a day or two later)
Use the spellchecker on a word-processing program as a learning tool. Monitor your own mistakes in the area of misspellings. Also note the words the spellchecker groups together - do you see words of similar spelling but different meanings which you know you tend to confuse (e.g. quiet v. quite). The thesaurus is another useful electronic tool which can be used to check for alternative words.
If you find it difficult to get started, or want some general feedback, sign up for a session with one of the language advisors.

For further help with writing see: Writing Skills Study Guides 1 - 4, available in the Language Resources Centre

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2.5 Learning vocabulary

Identify and list any significant first language /target language cognates. These are words which have the same historical origins. The words may still look similar or may have come to differ in spelling.
Familiarise yourself with any false cognates to avoid future slip-ups. These are words that look similar but differ (or have come to differ) in meaning, e.g. sympathique (French) and sympathetic (English).
Build vocabulary reference grids you can refer to - classify the words as noun, verb – adjective, adverb etc, and add related words, including opposites.
Create word webs or mind maps to map vocabulary into frames of reference that can help you memorise new items of vocabulary.
When noting down new vocabulary, add useful information such as the pronunciation in phonetic transcription, indicate the stressed syllable(s), if any, put it in a context/sentence, add any important details about word partnerships e.g. the preposition employed after a particular verb and other notes about usage, synonyms and antonyms. Note also if the word is associated with a particular register or has particular connotations.
Group vocabulary according to topic (perhaps alongside the text where you found it) for easier recall or devise your own categories for grouping new vocabulary items.
Learn to identify the basic vocabulary building blocks in the language you are studying e.g. common endings (suffixes) for nouns, prefixes commonly used to make an adjective an opposite etc. When you come across a new one try to find several examples that follow this pattern.
Learn to understand the abbreviations and terms used in dictionaries so you get the most out of using them. A good dictionary will also give you information about the grammar of a word, its pronunciation and stress pattern and its usage, as well as its meaning and spelling.

For further help with vocabulary learning see the following guides, available in the Language Resources Centre:

Vocabulary Study Guides 1 and 2
Dictionary Study Guides 1 - 3,

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2.6 Learning grammar

When you learn a new grammatical rule try to use it actively. By creating situations (in speaking and writing) where you can try out new grammar you can start to assimilate it and this will also help to reinforce it in your memory.
Try to study grammar in context. A context can provide additional information about grammatical usage and may help you remember a point of grammar better than the isolated study of a particular rule. You can also study grammar more actively in context by looking at several examples of the use of a particular point and trying to analyse and work out the rule for yourself. You can compare your conclusions about use with a grammar reference book afterwards.
When you learn about a new grammatical structure, look out for examples of it in your target language reading. Do they broadly correspond to the rule for usage you have learnt? Collect useful examples of grammar in use from your reading.
Use answer keys and other models (where available) to check your progress; this is not cheating, providing you attempt the exercise on your own first.
Practice helps – if you don’t like paper-based exercises, try a software package or a web-based exercise.
Try to become aware of your learning strategies. Note them down and exchange ideas with other learners.

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2.7 General approaches to learning

Develop an organised approach to your language learning. Identify your needs – assess your strengths and your weaknesses and decide what you want to achieve Draw up a weekly / monthly work plan; keep a work record of tutor-set tasks and self-directed tasks. You will find it useful to discuss your plans with your course tutor or a learning advisor.
Focus on developing appropriate learning skills and strategies. CLS workshops will look at a number of different techniques.
Start a learner diary to practise writing in the target language and to record reflections about how your language learning is progressing and any other thoughts you have about the language you are learning.
Keep a list of your language learning achievements (e.g. Since last week I have learnt .../ I am now able to...) to encourage and motivate yourself.
Use a photocopy or printout and a highlighter pen to train yourself to pick out useful language. Develop your own personal system for highlighting items, for example, underline, use different colour highlighters, draw circles and boxes around items etc.

For further general help with language learning use the following guides, available in the Language Resources Centre:

How to be a good language learner Study Guide 7
What makes a good language learner? Study Guide 6
Some ways to assess your progress.
Steps towards making your language learning more effective.

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Section 3: Making the most of language learning resources

by Julie Watson

There is a range of materials and resources across the university, both in dedicated language resources rooms and in other areas such as Computing Services laboratories, which can be used for language learning. We give you a few suggestions below for making the best of these:

Use the Internet

to practise reading authentic, up-to-date language material - go to foreign language pages on the World Wide Web (follow some of our weblinks), perhaps try an on-line newspaper
to access on-line specialist dictionaries
to study grammar in context
to extend your vocabulary in a particular area; look at the different categories on SML web pages
to get informal writing practice - join a chatroom for French, German, Spanish etc or
to practise reading and writing skills using the email facility - join a foreign language list, read a bulletin board in another language, strike up an email correspondence with a native speaker of the language you are studying (look at the international tandem email pages at www.slf.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/email/idxeng00.html)
tune into digital radio and TV stations around the world using a virtual tuner (e.g. www.VTuner.com)

Use foreign periodicals and newspapers:

to practise skim reading for gist
to develop your knowledge of the target language culture(s).
to practise speaking after reading - orally summarise an article you have read to a partner or discuss it together
to develop your vocabulary in a particular area
to study grammar in context
for note-taking and practice in writing summaries
to develop your prediction skills - using titles, subtitles, first paragraphs etc

Use the self-access laboratory:

to assess your own speaking skill - record yourself speaking on a blank tape then listen critically
to practise listening (make use of video and satellite TV as well as audio cassettes to practise this) - choose one of the listening activities suggested above
to develop your awareness of important aspects of the target language by studying, for example, the role of body language in TV programmes or on video
to share a listening/viewing exercise with a partner, discussing or summarising it together afterwards
to practise note-taking, e.g. watch a videotape of a lecture in the language you are learning
to focus on a specific aspect of the language your are learning, e.g. grammar in use, a new area of vocabulary, accent or intonation

Use computer-based language learning materials

dedicated software e.g. vocabulary and grammar learning exercises and ‘Test Yourself’ programs in various languages. These can provide a more stimulating alternative to book-based exercises and can be fun if done with a partner
interactive language learning courses, some with audio and video facilities
electronic dictionaries for various languages
language databases providing a rich resource for further language study
foreign language wordprocessing (e.g. WordPerfect) at all student computing services workstations
digital sound and video files

Use satellite TV

there are over 10 channels available; many have teletext subtitles (usually on page 888)
use the satellite TV facilities on the computers and use the electronic dictionaries and notepad facilities

Use the laminated materials in the topic boxes

this material has been prepared specifically for self-study and much of it includes guidance notes and answer keys. Choose a document and use it as a source of interesting and contextualised language

And finally… use native speakers

this will help develop your fluency (in speaking and writing)
set up a tandem partnership – you offer a language in return for help
get involved in genuine communication, this is what language learning is all about!

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Section 4: A Glossary of key words and terms in language learning

Words and phrases in bold have glossary definitions.

adverb a word that modifies a verb, adjective or another adverb

antonym word of opposite meaning

autonomous learning / independent learning the capacity to take charge and plan one's own learning

auxiliary (verb) verbs – such as ‘be’, ‘have’ or ‘do’ in English - used with a main verb e.g. may, can

case endings the role of a noun (as subject, object) in a sentence in some languages (e.g. German, Czech) is shown through changes in e.g.article, noun, adjective. Basic cases in German are nominative, accusative, genitive and dative

(language) chatroom site for online informal communication in writing between users/learners of a particular language about any matter that is raised by a participant

cognate words in different languages sharing the same historical root. This is sometimes but not always apparent in a similarity of spelling.

collocation see word partnership

colloquial language, colloquialism word or expression used in informal situations. Less restricted in use than slang.

conjugate to change the form of a verb in accordance with tense or with a change in the subject of the verb

CALL computer assisted language learning ie. language learning materials accessible through computer

CD Rom (for language learning) Compact disc containing a quantity of information or program useful or specifically for language learning purposes. This can be stored on the computer hard disc or inserted into the CD drive for use as and when required.

false cognate words having similar form in two different languages but a different meaning

false friend see false cognate

First language (mother tongue) usually the language a person acquires first in childhood or the dominant language

functional language (language function) particular purpose for which language is being used, for example, language items that reflect different functional areas such as apologising, introducing and greeting etc can be grouped together

gender in some languages nouns have gender (masc, fem. and sometimes neuter). This can determine the endings of related parts of speech such as adjs, articles, pronouns etc

gist, reading for gist a rapid way of reading to grasp the general meaning or main idea of a text

idiom, idiomatic language a group of words that has a special meaning. The meaning is not clear from the individual meanings of the words in the group

imperative sentence form often following a characterstic pattern used to express an order eg. "Come here!" (the subject is omitted)

interactive program term loosely used for a computer program which allows the language learner to act on the language learning information it contains in some way and receive feedback from the program.

interrogative sentence a sentence which has the form of a question

intransitive verb a verb which cannot take an object eg. (Eng) rise

inversion case where the order of certain words in a sentence is reversed eg. subject verb inversion to create a question form eg. Ger

jargon specialised words or terms characteristically used by a group of people with a shared interest or profession eg. legal jargon, computer jargon

mind map see word web

object noun, pronoun or noun phrase affected by action of the verb in a sentence. The verb that takes an object is called a transitive verb. Some verbs can take both a direct and an indirect object e.g. We sent her an invitation

paralinguistic features features often occurring during verbal communication that are not spoken but carry meaning such as gestures, eye movements, facial expressions, body movement. These can vary from one language to another.

part of speech the name used to classify different kinds of words that can be identified in a sentence, eg. noun, adverb, preposition.

possessive word used to show possession. English has possessive pronouns (eg. mine, yours) and possessive adjectives (eg. her book, our car) and uses ‘s (eg. John’s pen) and ‘of’ (eg. the head of the company) to show possession

prefix letter(s) or sound(s) added to the beginning of a word which changes meaning or word function eg. (Ger Ab ? to noun)

phonetic script system of symbols used to represent the sounds of speech in any language so that the script can be read aloud exactly as spoken

register a variety of speech or writing used by a particular group of people (eg. internet enthusiasts, teenagers, lawyers) or in a particular situation (eg. formal letter, informal phone call)

reflexive verb verbs in some languages used to convey the idea that the subject is doing something to him/herself. Eg. Se lever (Fre), Sich (Ger) lauarse (Span)

root base form or stem of a word to which other units of meaning such as prefixes, suffixes, verb endings etc may be joined

scan rapid form of reading to extract particular information from a text

skim rapid form of reading to grasp general meaning/ gist from a text

slang very informal word or expression, not appropriate to use in all situations

synonym word of similar or same meaning (cf. antonym)

suffix letter(s) or sound(s) added to the end of a root word which changes meaning or word function. Eg. (Fre.vb to noun?)

(word) stress a syllable which receives more force when the word is voiced. Some longer words contain a syllable which receives the primary (main) stress and one which receives secondary stress

(sentence) stress the part(s) of a sentence which are emphasized either naturally or in order to draw particular attention to them

syllable individual part(s) of a word composed of a vowel sound or consonant and vowel together

sentence structure the basic grammatical pattern of sentences in a language showing order of key components eg. Fre? article + noun (subject) + verb + article + noun (object)

subject the person or thing carrying out the verb action in a sentence

target language the language you are learning/studying, also known as L2 second language or foreign language

transitive verb a verb which can take an object

vocabulary grid table of related vocabulary items functioning as different parts of speech. See Appendix

word partnership words often used together, eg. verbs with particular prepositions

word web or mind map. Method of recording ideas, new vocabulary etc to aid understanding of links between items or memory.

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All SML Study Guides can be found in the Language Resources Centre and another useful reference is Centre for Modern Languages, OU (1997) The Language Learner’s Good Study Guide, The Open University.


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